Psychological Basis Of Behavior Essay

Until recently the rushs of psychological put exposes were non so clearly defined. Then ripe imaging techniques made it contingent to rede various atomic number 18as of the mavin and pinpoint atomic number 18as that tone down behavior. It has been long cognise that the brilliance uses chemical substance messengers called neurotransmitters for signaling during its various processes. Advances in neuromedicine revealed that a lot of neurological and psychological roughnesss nominate a basis in imbalances mingled with various neurotransmitters in the disposition.Diseases desire Parkinsons, schizoid upset and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder be still a few where administering drugs that controlled levels of various neurotransmitters in the brain could control the ailment symptoms and in some cases even provide a cure. Indeed, it was the baring of these pharmacological agents that led to the discoin truth of newer agents that could control various neurological unhealt hinesss by manipulating levels of neurotransmitters. Development of various drugs for schizophrenia was make on the basis of the fact that they had the powerfulness to block dopamine receptors.In step-up it was noticed that in that location was similarly an increase number of dopamine receptors flummox in these patients1. Similarly, in patients who suffered form psychoneurotic disorder (OCD) an abnormality in the neurotransmitter serotonin was concerned and it was shown that drug therapy that did not affect 5-HT receptors was powerless in the considerment of OCD6. Parkinsons ailment kindred schizophrenia in any case is due(p) to an abnormality in dopamine levels and in Parkinsons dopamine levels proceed depleted4.Parkinsons illness is a movement disorder ca employ by the depletion of dopamine produced in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain that is amenable for voluntary movements of the body11. Parkinsons complaint is a neurodebrokerrative disease that affec ts 1% of the population. Its pathophysiology involves degeneration of substantia nigra. This expanse is responsible for movements in the body. conglomerate hypotheses dedicate been proposed concerning the causes of the disease and accommodate inherited factors, environmental factors and viruses.Amongst these genetic factors argon considered the close to measurable and mutations in various genes meet been set that are linked to Parkinsons disease. Genes that eat been concerned are PINK-1, DJ-1, and LRRK2 and it is impression that in addition to hereditary viruses and toxins are estimation to cause theses mutations4. Parkinsons disease is characterized by a fine pin-rolling tremor of the hands, rigidity, bradykinesia, an incommunicative face called a mask like face and a parkinsonian gait characterized by small steps and reduced spend of the arms.Additional symptoms whitethorn be present and complicate difficulty in wad and swallowing, depression, fatigue, dementia, speech problems, constipation, urinary problems and orthostatic hypotension7. Symptoms go away from patient to patient and can to a fault assume drastic horny consequences for the patient. diagnosis is often difficult as there are no tests available and is commonly made on history and scrutiny of the nervous system. Various sermon options are available and are mainly aimed at increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain.These include Levodopa, which is a precursor of dopamine and the nitty-gritty cells use synthesize dopamine. some other drugs like bromocriptine, apomorphine and pramipexole act by imitating the activity of dopamine4. at that place is no definitive cure for this disease and the get byment is only symptomatic. Adjuvant therapy whitethorn be given to relieve symptoms much(prenominal) as depression. dementia praecox is another disorder that is cause by an imbalance amid dopamine levels. The difference is that high levels of dopamine are put up and the disease has mainly psychiatricalalal manifestations.The cause of schizophrenia still form unknown and this has been hampered largely by the diametrical subtypes of the disease presenting a large word form of symptoms and involving different areas of the brain. It is in like manner a vaunt of diseases like Alzheimers and Huntingtons disease9. Schizophrenia is characterized by auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions in which the patient thinks that his surveys are being controlled outwardly and paranoid behavior believing someone is poisoning him, disorders of movement, cognitive dysfunction and emotional symptoms such as lack of pursuit in surroundings and social withdrawal2.Newer look has suggested that hatful with schizophrenia may put through an inability to smell certain items suggesting a disorder in the orbitofrontal region of the brain and surpri one at a time this sensory deficit has to a fault been open in patients with Parkinsons disease10. Other studie s indicate that abnormalities in the amygdalia a region of the brain dealing with psychological processes may cause schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders8. Though the cause is still dubitable it has been seen that schizophrenia runs in families hence suggesting a genetic factor.Environmental factors and trauma during parenthood have also been suggested as contri neverthelessory factors. In the past agents used to treat schizophrenia like chlorpromazine and haloperidol blocked both(prenominal) D1 and D2 receptors and caused extra pyramidic side dos2. But the newer agents like clozapine have a high similitude for D1 receptors and thus do not cause abdicable extrapyramidal side effects. Other agents that have fewer side effects are risperidone and olanzepine and are very in effect(p) in controlling symptoms.All of these agents act by reducing levels of dopamine in the brain thus enabling the control of symptoms. The genetic predisposition to schizophrenia is now wide known. Family history of mental ailments such as schizoaffective disorders, bipolar disorders and depression, are a very strong indication and predisposition to maturation schizophrenia. However, complex researches in the pattern of insane disorders among monozygotic twins have not been able to establish the full legitimacy of the claim. The scientists claim that schizophrenia has been associated with the shy gene or 5-HTT gene.Currently, having a schizophrenic geneticity is only the first link further phylogeny is dependant on other factors as well. (Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Many claim that there exists a link between schizophrenia and the environment. This is establish on the fact that increased jeopardize of schizophrenia within families cannot be singly attributed to the cause of it alone. The environmental factors that are public opinion to play an great division in make schizophrenia include psychosocial, biologic and physical factors, which are in effect from bir th till maturity.It is now claimed that the fundamental interaction of the genetic and the social or environmental factors are very important in the development of disease in schizophrenic patients. (Tsuang, 2001) Many of the environmental effects that get along with into play do so in preterm and in early childhood. The highest contribution seems to be the state of labor, for example, hypoxia, CNS damage RH incompatibility of the mother and child etcetera Also, other prenatal factors may include maternal depression, bereavement and flood and famine. epidemic roseola infections and infections of the CNS are also archetype to play a very important role in the development of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Obsessive-compulsive disorder is another psychiatric disorder that has at its cause an imbalance between neurotransmitters. In this case the neurotransmitter is serotonin. The areas of the brain thought to be tough in this disorder are the basal ganglia and the front al lobe6. state with OCD have obsessional thoughts and the compulsion to need out those thoughts repeatedly3. Patients often have an awareness of their abnormal thought patterns and are hard-pressed by them but are ineffectual to control them.Common symptoms are patients exhibiting rituals and having unwished-for thoughts and behavior patterns. Patients may have unwanted thoughts of a fear of germs or pain someone called an obsession and compulsions are the acts of carrying out those obsessional thoughts like repeatedly washables and cleaning or repeatedly numbering or checking things over and over again3. sometimes it manifests in conjunction with other psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and depression. It often resolves when these disorders are treated. It has also been seen with diseases like Parkinsons disease and Huntingtons chorea6.This disorder usually starts in adolescence and the patient is usually aware that he has some psychiatric ailment. The aetiology is indefinite but Obsessive-compulsive disorder also has a genetic component. Though environmental factors are also a study cause, head trauma has also been implicated in certain cases6. Various word options are available including behavioral therapy. Drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors act by delaying the uptake of serotonin into the neuron and thus prolonging its action. This controls the deficiency of serotonin thought to be involved in causing obsessional symptoms.Drugs that are being used include fluoxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and clomipramine. Drug therapy used to treat other anxiety disorders is not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder since it may not target the 5-HT receptors that are used by serotonin. Adams et al (2005)14 reported an up-regulation of serotonin receptors in caudate nuclei of OCD patients. Administration of selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor drugs was tested in OCD patients. When untreated patients were compared w ith rock-loving normal individuals, it was found that cerebral 5-HT (2A) receptors fertilization were high in these patients.However, this difference was hurt when SSRI drug was administered to the patients. Different studies have reported that 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) are most successful in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006). This suggests serotonin depletion may be a decisive cause of this disease. Normally, serotonin is actively involved in moderating flow of messages from orbital frontal cortex to thalamus via caudate nucleus. Various pharmacological studies have suggested 5-HT concentration in OFC is regulated by 5HT2 like receptors.SRI drugs modify 5-HT receptors regulation of serotonin and hence broadly used in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006)15. Delgado and Moreno (1998)16 also reported that these drugs binding potency is associate to hallucinogens. Pitterger et al (2006) reported that drugs that reduce kick upstairs glutamate levels in brain migh t be effective in treatment of OCD. Pitterger et al (2006)17 suggested antiglutamatergic agent riluzole (Rilutek) play vital role in reducing glutamate hyperactivity in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuitry. polish Overall a link has been found among various mental illnesses.This is evident by the fact that obsessive-compulsive disorder may be present in people who already have Schizophrenia or Parkinsons disease. This overlap suggests that similar areas of the brain are involved in the etiology of these diseases and also that similar neurotransmitters may also be involved. Also lodge ining is the law of similarity in the deficiency in the common sense of smell in both Parkinsons and schizophrenia. As research progresses and advanced neuroimaging techniques beseem available it will become possible to interlink these diseases to one another.Special areas of interest may be the basal ganglia and the amygdalia as they are seen involved in a variety of neurological disorder s. Parkinsons disease is a neurological disease, having a liberalist nature. There are certain mirthful signs and symptoms that a Parkinson patient presents with these include tremor, rigidity, akinesis or bradykinesia. Etiologically, Parkinsons disease is found in 1% of the population preceding(prenominal) 60 eld of age. The ratio increases in people above 70 years of age. Although, also found in women, predominantly affects male gender.The role of environment in causing paralysis agitans is worth mentioning. carbon copy mono-oxide and manganese, apart from certain pesticides play the major role in causing the disease. Parkinsonism among old aged people is idiopathic, but familial hereditary pattern can be possible. A lot is not known rough the role of genetics and inheritance of this disease, but occurrence in young ages carries a higher probability of familial inheritance. It has been found that schizophrenia and Parkinson disease may share similarity by wake dysfunctio n of the prefrontal cortical areas of the brain.Also, both these originators are the result or lavishness of deficiency of the levels of dopamine, which in turn dictates the treatment plan for such conditions. Similarly, patients suffering from Parkinsons disease may show the social movement of obsessive compulsive disorders, and the severity depends upon the length of the disease progression. The relation between these 3 conditions presenting in close relation with individually other raise many questions about the progress of each disease, and whether treatments of each condition contain treatments for others as well. (Maia, 2003)13